Thursday, February 19, 2015
Create A Baby
This post will discuss the characteristics of children and what they inherit from their parents. To complete this project, our class divided into pairs and "made a baby". Basically, we compared physical features, theorized a genotype, and combined the genotypes to determine a phenotype for the child. The data table and "outcome" are displayed below. There was a 50% chance that the child would turn out to be a girl, which it did. It was possible that if either of us had the same recessive gene of a trait that the child would be born with it, even if we did not have it ourselves.
Harry Potter Genetics
In this post, I have attached images from a worksheet I have done during class. The worksheet applies Punnett squares to the world of Harry Potter, determining what characteristics the children of these characters would most likely have.
Wednesday, February 18, 2015
Cell Reproduction Overview
In this post, we are going to compare and contrast the different ways cells reproduce, such as meiosis, mitosis, and cloning.
Meiosis: Meiosis is the division of one cell that results in four daughter cells. Each cell has half the number of chromosomes from the parent cell. This process is similar to mitosis in the fact that in the first stages the DNA is copied, however, where mitosis would normally align with spindles, meiosis cells align and contract chromosomes from the opposite DNA copy. These then split into two cells, and then undergo the same type of process to split into the resulting four daughter cells.
Meiosis: Meiosis is the division of one cell that results in four daughter cells. Each cell has half the number of chromosomes from the parent cell. This process is similar to mitosis in the fact that in the first stages the DNA is copied, however, where mitosis would normally align with spindles, meiosis cells align and contract chromosomes from the opposite DNA copy. These then split into two cells, and then undergo the same type of process to split into the resulting four daughter cells.
http://education-portal.com/cimages/multimages/16/meiosis.png
Mitosis: Mitosis is the division of one cell that results in two daughter cells with the exact number and kind of chromosomes as the parent cell. The parent cell makes one copy of its chromosomes and then divides itself, forming two distinct cells with nuclei.
Cloning: In this type of cell reproduction, the original DNA is manually emptied from the parent cell and replaced with the DNA from the cell you wish to clone. This will result in a cloned cell.
Tuesday, February 10, 2015
Stem Cell Research
In this post, we are going to explore the world of stem cells, and gain a deeper understanding of the fundamentals of stem cell research. To begin, a few terms are going to be defined. More information and definitions can be found here: http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/pages/glossary.aspx.
Cell-based therapies- Stem cells are induced to differentiate into the specific cell type required to repair damaged or destroyed cells or tissue.
Differentiation- The process whereby an unspecialized embryonic cell acquires the features of a specialized cell such as a heart, liver, or muscle cell.
Embryonic stem cell line- Embryonic stem cells, which have been cultured under in vitro conditions that allow proliferation without differentiation for months to years.
In Vitro- Latin for "in glass;" in a laboratory dish or test tube; an artificial environment.
Plasticity- The adaptability of an organism to changes in its environment or differences between its various habitats.
Pluripotent- The state of a single cell that is capable of differentiating into all tissues of an organism, but not alone capable of sustaining full organismal development.
Proliferation- Expansion of the number of cells by the continuous division of single cells into two identical daughter cells.
Therapeutic cloning- The process of using somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) to produce cells that exactly match a patient.
All stem cells have unique properties, no matter where they originate from. Unlike regular cells, stem cells can proliferate, or replicate themselves numerous times. If the replicated cells remain unspecialized, the cells will be capable of long-term renewal.
The two most common stem cells used in research are adult stem cells and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells come from living human tissue while embryonic stem cells come from embryos that have been developed in vitro. Adult stem cells are most commonly used for research with orthopedic conditions. Embryonic stem cells are used in research that works to manipulate the cells so that they will differentiate into specific cells, such as muscle, brain, etc.
By advancing in stem cell research, scientists hope to cure diseases such as Parkinson's Disease, diabetes, heart disease, spinal injury, and other various cell-related diseases. By controlling the differentiation of cells, researchers will be able to replace the damaged cells targeted in each disease with new, healthy ones.
In order for the cells to be used successfully in cell-based therapies, stem cells would need to proliferate and create an abundance of tissues. They also need to differentiate into the targeted cell type in order to create success within the subject's cell therapy. The cells need to be healthy and function able, working with the subject's immune system without being rejected. All of these qualities are vital for the success of cell-therapy involving stem cells.
Stem cell research is a very controversial topic, since the embryonic cells must be gathered from an unborn specimen, or one developed in vitro. Despite the obstacles, stem cell research has been able to gather astounding results and further advance the understanding of how stem cells function.
Cell-based therapies- Stem cells are induced to differentiate into the specific cell type required to repair damaged or destroyed cells or tissue.
Differentiation- The process whereby an unspecialized embryonic cell acquires the features of a specialized cell such as a heart, liver, or muscle cell.
Embryonic stem cell line- Embryonic stem cells, which have been cultured under in vitro conditions that allow proliferation without differentiation for months to years.
In Vitro- Latin for "in glass;" in a laboratory dish or test tube; an artificial environment.
Plasticity- The adaptability of an organism to changes in its environment or differences between its various habitats.
Pluripotent- The state of a single cell that is capable of differentiating into all tissues of an organism, but not alone capable of sustaining full organismal development.
Proliferation- Expansion of the number of cells by the continuous division of single cells into two identical daughter cells.
Therapeutic cloning- The process of using somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) to produce cells that exactly match a patient.
All stem cells have unique properties, no matter where they originate from. Unlike regular cells, stem cells can proliferate, or replicate themselves numerous times. If the replicated cells remain unspecialized, the cells will be capable of long-term renewal.
The two most common stem cells used in research are adult stem cells and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells come from living human tissue while embryonic stem cells come from embryos that have been developed in vitro. Adult stem cells are most commonly used for research with orthopedic conditions. Embryonic stem cells are used in research that works to manipulate the cells so that they will differentiate into specific cells, such as muscle, brain, etc.
By advancing in stem cell research, scientists hope to cure diseases such as Parkinson's Disease, diabetes, heart disease, spinal injury, and other various cell-related diseases. By controlling the differentiation of cells, researchers will be able to replace the damaged cells targeted in each disease with new, healthy ones.
In order for the cells to be used successfully in cell-based therapies, stem cells would need to proliferate and create an abundance of tissues. They also need to differentiate into the targeted cell type in order to create success within the subject's cell therapy. The cells need to be healthy and function able, working with the subject's immune system without being rejected. All of these qualities are vital for the success of cell-therapy involving stem cells.
Stem cell research is a very controversial topic, since the embryonic cells must be gathered from an unborn specimen, or one developed in vitro. Despite the obstacles, stem cell research has been able to gather astounding results and further advance the understanding of how stem cells function.
Friday, January 23, 2015
Onion Root Mitosis Lab
Objective- In this post, the cell cycle is going to be applied to the world of onions. The post will explore the presence of the cell cycle in onion root tips. To do this, an online virtual lab will be used to stimulate actually viewing the cells of an onion root under a microscope. This lab can be found here: http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio/activities/cell_cycle/assignment.html.
| Interphase | Prophase | Metaphase | Anaphase | Telophase | ||
| number of cells | 20 | 10 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 36 |
| percent of cells | 55.6% | 27.8% | 8.3% | 5.6% | 2.8% | 100% |
Data Analysis- As you can see, a large percentage of the cells presented were in the interphase stage, more than half. Since interphase is the "resting period" of the cell's life, not a true stage of mitosis, it can be concluded that of the 36 cells presented, only 4.5% were experiencing the mitosis process. According to the data, it can be understood that besides interphase, prophase is the longest stage of mitosis. 10 of the 36 cells were in the prophase, showing that once they entered the prophase, it took a long time to cross over into metaphase. A cell in interphase can be recognized by the fact that the cell has a fully constructed nucleus and cell wall. A cell in metaphase can be recognized based on how the chromosomes in the cell are aligned. If the chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell with spindles connecting them to the outsides of the cell, without trace of a nucleus, it can be determined that the cell is in metaphase.
To put into perspective how the number of cells in each phase related to each other, this pie chart was created with the numerical data collected during the experiment.
To put into perspective how the number of cells in each phase related to each other, this pie chart was created with the numerical data collected during the experiment.
Wednesday, January 21, 2015
Understanding Cancer and the Cell Cycle
In this post, I am going to discuss the cell cycle and how it relates to cancer. To begin with, we first need to establish an understanding of how cells reproduce.
Cells only reproduce when it is necessary. The brain will send signals throughout your body that will either halt or begin the reproductive process, controlling production rates. This prevents the system from being flooded with cells. Another thing to keep in mind is that not all cells reproduce. A good example of these are the cells found in your brain. Once a brain cell is killed, it will not be reproduced. With that in mind, let's dig in to the actual reproduction process.
The "cell cycle" is a reproductive process that involves five stages: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Together, these are called mitosis. In order to better understand mitosis, we are going to delve into each step and understand their purposes.
Interphase- This phase is where the cell spends most of its life. It is also known as the "resting phase". This is the stage where the DNA begins to be copied.
Now that we have discussed the cell cycle, let's talk about cancer.
Overview- In the basic sense, cancer cells are not too different than normal, healthy cells. The difference lies in the genes of the cell. In a normal cell, genes work to keep the cell from mutating. Cancer forms when these genes become mutated, as they become unable to protect the cell. The cell then becomes mutated and reproduces more mutated cells at a rapid rate. Cell mutations can also be caused by an over expressed protein. The cell cycle becomes over stimulated, and cells become cancerous.
Position- Normal cells only reproduce when needed. They are "densely-dependant" meaning they rely on their surroundings to tell them when to reproduce and when to stop. If there is a high concentration of cells, reproduction is not necessary. If there is a low concentration of cells, the cells will reproduce. This process does not exist with cancer cells. Cancerous cells reproduce at a rapid rate and overpopulate their surroundings. This is how tumors form. At some point, if the cancer goes untreated, the cancer cells will enter the bloodstream and distribute themselves throughout the rest of your body. They will continue to reproduce in their new location, causing more tumors to form.
Treatment- Cancer treatment, though multiple processes are used, really has one goal. This goal is to block the protein that causes the cell to reproduce rapidly. By blocking this protein, mutated cells will no longer be produced, and the cancer will be prevented or stopped.
Cells only reproduce when it is necessary. The brain will send signals throughout your body that will either halt or begin the reproductive process, controlling production rates. This prevents the system from being flooded with cells. Another thing to keep in mind is that not all cells reproduce. A good example of these are the cells found in your brain. Once a brain cell is killed, it will not be reproduced. With that in mind, let's dig in to the actual reproduction process.
The "cell cycle" is a reproductive process that involves five stages: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Together, these are called mitosis. In order to better understand mitosis, we are going to delve into each step and understand their purposes.
Interphase- This phase is where the cell spends most of its life. It is also known as the "resting phase". This is the stage where the DNA begins to be copied.
Prophase- This phase is where the DNA begins to separate to the opposite sides of the cell. The membrane of the nucleus is broken down, and the chromosomes become visible.
Metaphase- During this phase, the chromosomes attach to the spindle fibers and line up along the metaphase plate. This is an imaginary plate that is used as a boundary between the sets of DNA. The membrane is completely broken down.
Anaphase- In this phase, the chromosomes are split apart and pulled to the opposite sides of the cell.
Telophase- This is the final phase of cell division before the cell actually separates. The nucleus membranes begin to reform around the chromosomes, and the cell prepares to separate. This is also where the cell walls begin to form.
Below is an example of the cell cycle as shown with donuts.
Now that we have discussed the cell cycle, let's talk about cancer.
Overview- In the basic sense, cancer cells are not too different than normal, healthy cells. The difference lies in the genes of the cell. In a normal cell, genes work to keep the cell from mutating. Cancer forms when these genes become mutated, as they become unable to protect the cell. The cell then becomes mutated and reproduces more mutated cells at a rapid rate. Cell mutations can also be caused by an over expressed protein. The cell cycle becomes over stimulated, and cells become cancerous.
Position- Normal cells only reproduce when needed. They are "densely-dependant" meaning they rely on their surroundings to tell them when to reproduce and when to stop. If there is a high concentration of cells, reproduction is not necessary. If there is a low concentration of cells, the cells will reproduce. This process does not exist with cancer cells. Cancerous cells reproduce at a rapid rate and overpopulate their surroundings. This is how tumors form. At some point, if the cancer goes untreated, the cancer cells will enter the bloodstream and distribute themselves throughout the rest of your body. They will continue to reproduce in their new location, causing more tumors to form.
Treatment- Cancer treatment, though multiple processes are used, really has one goal. This goal is to block the protein that causes the cell to reproduce rapidly. By blocking this protein, mutated cells will no longer be produced, and the cancer will be prevented or stopped.
Monday, January 12, 2015
Green Human Project
To: Applied Molecular Evolution, Inc.
Re: Request for Proposals for The Green Human Project: Building a Photosynthetic Human
Date: January 7, 2015
Project Objective:
This project seeks to construct a list of design modifications to human anatomy and physiology that would allow humans to carry out photosynthesis. This will lead to the conversion of solar energy into glucose or other energy-rich molecules.
This project seeks to construct a list of design modifications to human anatomy and physiology that would allow humans to carry out photosynthesis. This will lead to the conversion of solar energy into glucose or other energy-rich molecules.
Project Rationale:
Due to the increase in human population, the ratio of humans to food has severely decreased, causing nutrition deficiencies. As a solution to this problem, Applied Molecular Evolution, Inc. has proposed the idea of a "green human". This means a person would be able to photosynthesize and produce their own food.
Project Design:
In order to produce a self-depending human, one must understand the process of photosynthesis and how plants are able to be independently fed. First, let's imagine the differences. Plants have blocky, strong cells while animal cells are round and offer less support. Plants also have chlorophyll and chloroplast. Plants then profuse large amounts of glucose, too much for a human to handle on a large, body-size scale. So how could a "green human" be possible? A person would need to switch structure from a heterotroph to an autotroph. This idea has become very popular in pop culture and fictional stories. One such story is "The Gardener" by S.A. Bodeen. This story explores the concept of autotrophs that live in a remote greenhouse, feeding from the sun and pumping extra nutrients into their bodies through a hose system. The extra glucose and other substances are pumped out through a separate vacuum system. This concept would actually be pretty easy to replicate, though being able to alter the entire cell structure of a human being would prove rather difficult. The cell structure would need to be strengthened, and new parts of the cell would need to be created. Chlorophyll and chloroplast would also need to be added to the human system. The chlorophyll would alter the skin color, causing the human to appear green. More metabolic enzymes would need to be added to break down the excess food that could not be stored.
Project Effects:
This project will affect the global population, and it is evident not everyone will comply. People will run into ethical concern, preventing the project from meeting all of its goals. The project will, however, reach the goal of mediating consumption of food on a large scale.
Due to the increase in human population, the ratio of humans to food has severely decreased, causing nutrition deficiencies. As a solution to this problem, Applied Molecular Evolution, Inc. has proposed the idea of a "green human". This means a person would be able to photosynthesize and produce their own food.
Project Design:
In order to produce a self-depending human, one must understand the process of photosynthesis and how plants are able to be independently fed. First, let's imagine the differences. Plants have blocky, strong cells while animal cells are round and offer less support. Plants also have chlorophyll and chloroplast. Plants then profuse large amounts of glucose, too much for a human to handle on a large, body-size scale. So how could a "green human" be possible? A person would need to switch structure from a heterotroph to an autotroph. This idea has become very popular in pop culture and fictional stories. One such story is "The Gardener" by S.A. Bodeen. This story explores the concept of autotrophs that live in a remote greenhouse, feeding from the sun and pumping extra nutrients into their bodies through a hose system. The extra glucose and other substances are pumped out through a separate vacuum system. This concept would actually be pretty easy to replicate, though being able to alter the entire cell structure of a human being would prove rather difficult. The cell structure would need to be strengthened, and new parts of the cell would need to be created. Chlorophyll and chloroplast would also need to be added to the human system. The chlorophyll would alter the skin color, causing the human to appear green. More metabolic enzymes would need to be added to break down the excess food that could not be stored.
Project Effects:
This project will affect the global population, and it is evident not everyone will comply. People will run into ethical concern, preventing the project from meeting all of its goals. The project will, however, reach the goal of mediating consumption of food on a large scale.
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