Onion Root Mitosis Lab

Objective- In this post, the cell cycle is going to be applied to the world of onions. The post will explore the presence of the cell cycle in onion root tips. To do this, an online virtual lab will be used to stimulate actually viewing the cells of an onion root under a microscope. This lab can be found here: http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio/activities/cell_cycle/assignment.html.

	Interphase	Prophase	Metaphase	Anaphase	Telophase
number of cells	20	10	3	2	1	36
percent of cells	55.6%	27.8%	8.3%	5.6%	2.8%	100%

Data Analysis- As you can see, a large percentage of the cells presented were in the interphase stage, more than half. Since interphase is the "resting period" of the cell's life, not a true stage of mitosis, it can be concluded that of the 36 cells presented, only 4.5% were experiencing the mitosis process. According to the data, it can be understood that besides interphase, prophase is the longest stage of mitosis. 10 of the 36 cells were in the prophase, showing that once they entered the prophase, it took a long time to cross over into metaphase.  A cell in interphase can be recognized by the fact that the cell has a fully constructed nucleus and cell wall. A cell in metaphase can be recognized based on how the chromosomes in the cell are aligned. If the chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell with spindles connecting them to the outsides of the cell, without trace of a nucleus, it can be determined that the cell is in metaphase.

To put into perspective how the number of cells in each phase related to each other, this pie chart was created with the numerical data collected during the experiment.

http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/createagraph/default.aspx?ID=22469a07aaf4425f91873c361a92f325

Understanding Cancer and the Cell Cycle

In this post, I am going to discuss the cell cycle and how it relates to cancer. To begin with, we first need to establish an understanding of how cells reproduce.

Cells only reproduce when it is necessary. The brain will send signals throughout your body that will either halt or begin the reproductive process, controlling production rates. This prevents the system from being flooded with cells. Another thing to keep in mind is that not all cells reproduce. A good example of these are the cells found in your brain. Once a brain cell is killed, it will not be reproduced. With that in mind, let's dig in to the actual reproduction process.

The "cell cycle" is a reproductive process that involves five stages: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Together, these are called mitosis.  In order to better understand mitosis, we are going to delve into each step and understand their purposes.

Interphase- This phase is where the cell spends most of its life. It is also known as the "resting phase".   This is the stage where the DNA begins to be copied.

http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labbench/lab3/images/replicat.gif

Prophase- This phase is where the DNA begins to separate to the opposite sides of the cell. The membrane of the nucleus is broken down, and the chromosomes become visible. 

http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labbench/lab3/images/prophase.gif

Metaphase- During this phase, the chromosomes attach to the spindle fibers and line up along the metaphase plate. This is an imaginary plate that is used as a boundary between the sets of DNA. The membrane is completely broken down.

http://php.med.unsw.edu.au/cellbiology/images/0/08/Mitosis_metaphase_NIH.JPG

Anaphase- In this phase, the chromosomes are split apart and pulled to the opposite sides of the cell. 

http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/images/meiosis/meana1.gif

Telophase- This is the final phase of cell division before the cell actually separates. The nucleus membranes begin to reform around the chromosomes, and the cell prepares to separate. This is also where the cell walls begin to form. 

http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/images/meiosis/metel1.gif

Below is an example of the cell cycle as shown with donuts. 

http://41.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_l2znfqvgjG1qbh26io1_1280.jpg

Now that we have discussed the cell cycle, let's talk about cancer.

Overview- In the basic sense, cancer cells are not too different than normal, healthy cells. The difference lies in the genes of the cell. In a normal cell, genes work to keep the cell from mutating. Cancer forms when these genes become mutated, as they become unable to protect the cell. The cell then becomes mutated and reproduces more mutated cells at a rapid rate. Cell mutations can also be caused by an over expressed protein. The cell cycle becomes over stimulated, and cells become cancerous.

Position- Normal cells only reproduce when needed. They are "densely-dependant" meaning they rely on their surroundings to tell them when to reproduce and when to stop. If there is a high concentration of cells, reproduction is not necessary. If there is a low concentration of cells, the cells will reproduce. This process does not exist with cancer cells. Cancerous cells reproduce at a rapid rate and overpopulate their surroundings. This is how tumors form. At some point, if the cancer goes untreated, the cancer cells will enter the bloodstream and distribute themselves throughout the rest of your body. They will continue to reproduce in their new location, causing more tumors to form.

Treatment- Cancer treatment, though multiple processes are used, really has one goal. This goal is to block the protein that causes the cell to reproduce rapidly. By blocking this protein, mutated cells will no longer be produced, and the cancer will be prevented or stopped.

http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/prod_consump/groups/cr_common/@cah/@gen/documents/image/crukmig_1000img-12344.jpg

Green Human Project

To: Applied Molecular Evolution, Inc.

Re: Request for Proposals for The Green Human Project: Building a Photosynthetic Human

Date: January 7, 2015

Project Objective: 
This project seeks to construct a list of design modifications to human anatomy and physiology that would allow humans to carry out photosynthesis. This will lead to the conversion of solar energy into glucose or other energy-rich molecules.

Project Rationale:
Due to the increase in human population, the ratio of humans to food has severely decreased, causing nutrition deficiencies. As a solution to this problem, Applied Molecular Evolution, Inc. has proposed the idea of a "green human". This means a person would be able to photosynthesize and produce their own food.

Project Design: 
In order to produce a self-depending human, one must understand the process of photosynthesis and how plants are able to be independently fed. First, let's imagine the differences. Plants have blocky, strong cells while animal cells are round and offer less support. Plants also have chlorophyll and chloroplast. Plants then profuse large amounts of glucose, too much for a human to handle on a large, body-size scale. So how could a "green human" be possible? A person would need to switch structure from a heterotroph to an autotroph. This idea has become very popular in pop culture and fictional stories. One such story is "The Gardener" by S.A. Bodeen. This story explores the concept of autotrophs that live in a remote greenhouse, feeding from the sun and pumping extra nutrients into their bodies through a hose system. The extra glucose and other substances are pumped out through a separate vacuum system. This concept would actually be pretty easy to replicate, though being able to alter the entire cell structure of a human being would prove rather difficult. The cell structure would need to be strengthened, and new parts of the cell would need to be created. Chlorophyll and chloroplast would also need to be added to the human system. The chlorophyll would alter the skin color, causing the human to appear green. More metabolic enzymes would need to be added to break down the excess food that could not be stored.

Project Effects:
This project will affect the global population, and it is evident not everyone will comply. People will run into ethical concern, preventing the project from meeting all of its goals. The project will, however, reach the goal of mediating consumption of food on a large scale.

Photosynthesis Dry Lab

For this post, my classmates and I were given background information and observations from a photosynthesis lab, and asked to describe and conclude the lab based solely on the information we were given. We were not given any testing materials or outside resources to complete this project. The information found below is the result of this process. 

Purpose: The purpose for this experiment was to discover the connection between respiration and photosynthesis. Bromothymol was used to test the carbon dioxide concentration within the test subjects.

Background Facts:

• Carbon dioxide in water produces carbonic acid.
• Bromothymol Blue (BTB) is a blue-green liquid which changes to a yellow color in acid and back to blue-green when returned to a neutral pH.
• Carbon dioxide plus water yields sugar and oxygen when chlorophyll and sunlight are present.
• Animals respire.
• Green plants photosynthesize in the light and respire all the time.
• Sugar plus oxygen yields carbon dioxide plus water and energy.

Materials: This lab required access to test tubes, snails, Elodea plants, light sources, dark places, pond water, and BTB.

Procedure: To fulfill the purpose of this experiment and test for results, each material was tested with BTB, often in combinations. The pond water was tested without any other subjects, then alone with an aquarium snail, Elodea, and finally, an aquarium snail and Elodea plant together.

Observations:

1. Water plus bromothymol blue is blue-green.
2. Water plus bromothymol blue plus an aquarium snail turns yellow.
3. Water plus bromothymol blue plus Elodea (an aquarium plant) is blue-green in light.
4. Water plus bromothymol blue plus a snail plus Elodea is blue-green in light and yellow when left in the dark for three hours.

Analysis and Conclusions:

1. Water plus bromothymol blue is blue-green because there is no carbonic acid in the water, keeping the BTB at a neutral pH.

2. Water plus bromothymol blue plus an aquarium snail turns yellow because the snail respires carbon dioxide, forming carbonic acid. The BTB detects this and reacts, altering its pH level.

3. Water plus bromothymol blue plus Elodea (an aquarium plant) is blue-green in light because if any carbonic acid existed in the water, the plant used the carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. This caused the pH of the BTB to remain neutral.

4. A mixture of water, bromothymol blue, a snail, and Elodea produce a is blue-green BTB color in light and a yellow BTB color when left in the dark for three hours because the Elodea halts the photosynthesis process when it is taken away from a light source. The plant does not require carbon dioxide while it is idle, thus causing a build up of carbonic acid content in the water. Due to the fact that the snail continued to produce carbon dioxide though the plant was not consuming it, the carbon dioxide was detected by the BTB.

Pick Your Poison: Belladonna

What is belladonna and what effects does it have on the human body? This post is going to explain all of the basic principles of this poison, including its origins and history.

The poison can be found in the Belladonna plant, characterized with green leaves, purple bell-like flowers, and glossy black berries. There is enough poison in one leaf to be lethal, equivalent to ten berries of the same plant. The name Belladonna is derived from the Italian word meaning "beautiful woman."  During the middle ages, women used the poison for cosmetic purposes, dilating their eyes and adding color to their cheeks. The poison from the leaves has often in the past been used to poison the tips of arrows. This poison was also a favorite among assassins and authors of fictional mystery stories. Currently, Belladonna is used as a sedative for bronchial spasms and a remedy for Parkinson's disease, colic, and motion sickness, though it has been considered ineffective for all previously stated purposes.  The plant can be found in North America, Europe, and Western Asia.

http://www.thepoisongarden.co.uk/images/atropa_belladonna_170906_1.jpg

What happens if Belladonna is ingested in lethal amounts? Belladonna targets the nervous system, using chemicals to prevent the system from operating correctly. Symptoms of Belladonna poisoning include dry mouth, enlarged pupils, blurred vision, red dry skin, fever, quickened heartbeat, inability to sweat or urinate, hallucinations, spasms, mental problems, convulsions, comas, and death. Two of the key toxins in this deadly plant are scopolamine and hyoscyamine. An alkaloid found in Belladonna works to jam the muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, preventing the brain from signaling correctly to the rest of the body, namely the nervous system. If known ingestion has occurred, the best remedies lie in acting quickly to flush the system before the poison has a chance to take effect. This can be accomplished by using emetics and stomach pumps. This is often followed by a dose of magnesia, stimulants, and strong coffee. 

Other common names for Belladonna:

Deadly Nightshade

Atropa Belladonna

Naughty Man's Cherries

Beautiful Death

http://www.slate.com/blogs/wild_things/2014/08/18/poisonous_plants_belladonna_nightshade_is_the_celebrity_of_deadly_flora.html

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/531.html

http://listverse.com/2012/12/02/10-poisons-used-to-kill-people/

http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/n/nighde05.html

http://www.acnp.org/g4/GN401000011/Default.htm

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

                    In this post, I am going to discuss the genetic disease Phenylketonuria (PKU). 

PKU occurs when a genetic mutation is inherited, disrupting the function of the PAH metabolic enzyme. In a functional PAH enzyme, it catalyzes the phenylalanine amino acid into another amino acid: tyrosine. With a defective PAH enzyme, the reaction needed to break down phenylalanine and produce tyrosine does not occur.

http://img.tfd.com/mk/P/X2604-P-23.png

Due to the build up and excess amounts of phenylalanine, multiple symptoms can occur, such as epilepsy, brain retardation, and a musty smell to the skin can occur. It is also possible for a child to have a head size below average expectation as a symptom of PKU. As a result of lack of tyrosine, the most identifiable symptoms lie in appearance. These symptoms include lighter qualities in skin and hair, and often cause eyes to be blue.

PKU is not a very common disorder, only about 1 in every 15,000 infants are diagnosed with the disease. Though the odds are not in the favor of a to be child to be born with PKU, it is very important that it be identified at an early age. In fact, the common procedure in the United States requires babies to be tested for the disorder immediately after they are born. The reason behind the urgency of testing is an attempt to prevent the build up of phenylalanine and provide treatment for the patient. Treatment is obtained through a low protein diet and the avoidance of eggs, meat, and dairy. Below are a few examples of how PKU patients organize foods into an acceptable dietary plan. The goal is to "hit the bull's eye" and consume phenyl-free foods.

http://www.drkarencann.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/Food-Target-Graphic-.jpg

http://depts.washington.edu/pku/images/food_bullseye.jpg

For more information on PKU, please visit:

http://www.ygyh.org

http://www.nspku.org

Newborn Screening in Colorado

http://willroberts.com/pku/

 

Parts of The Animal Cell

This post shows the different components to an animal cell while giving a description of the function of each part.